In the simmering heat of Tudor Moroto slum in Mombasa, children and women go about their business oblivious of the dirty air around them.
Most slum dwellers lack electricity supply so they use candles, firewood, charcoal and kerosene lamps on a daily basis.
Those who cannot afford these burn plastic bags and containers, unaware they are exposing themselves to a silent killer or aware yet stuck with the option.
Burning these items releases pollutants such as carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, poly-aromatic hydrocarbons and particulate matter in different sizes.
The World Health Organisation reports the level of fine particulate matter in the city’s outdoor air is 17 micrograms per cubic meter (µg/m3). This is 70 per cent above the recommended maximum level.
WHO also reports around three billion people cook and heat their homes using solid fuels (wood, charcoal, coal, dung, crop wastes) on open fires or traditional stoves.
LITTLE OR NO AWARENESS
Many of the people who use these methods are unaware of the dangers.
At lunch time, Jumwa Kitsao, a mother of five, lights her kerosene stove as is the norm. She has no alternative and says her work does not allow her "luxurious types of cooking".
"We are waiting for the right time to get good money. Right now I am doing the work of removing flakes from coconuts. I do this for households that need my services and the money is not enough."
She tells The Star she is proud of what she has achieved so far.
Kitsao is one of the many people in Mombasa who are not well aware that indoor pollution causes about 4.3 million premature deaths globally each year.
Estimates of indoor air pollution levels in homes do not come by easily due to difficulties in monitoring each one.
The invisibility of the problem is worsened by the notion that it is private.
Mercy, who also lives in the slum, says she uses a jiko and a stove to cook and that she has not had any problems.
"They have never affected me. What affects me are my surroundings."
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Eldoret resident Gladys Wanjiru using firewood to cook. /MATHEWS NDANYI
'CHEST PAINS BUT NO CHOICE'
Gladys Wanjiru, a mother of one at Kamukunji slum in Eldoret, says she uses firewood to cook despite the negative effects she has suffered.
Wood smoke has been shown to have similar pollutants as cigarette smoke but at higher concentrations.
Poor ventilation in homes because of concerns about security or outdoor air pollution worsens matters.
The pollutants are associated with respiratory diseases, cancers and serious maternal and child health concerns.
"Mara nyingi moshi huingia kwenye kifua na hata kwa macho lakini inabidi nitumie stove kwa sababu sina namna. Wakati mwingine kifua kinafungana kwa sababu ya moshi (Most times the smoke gets into my lungs and eyes but I have no choice since it is the only cooking method I can afford. At times I suffer chest congestion)," Wanjiru says.
She says she is not fully aware of the long term effects and would love to use gas.
"Kuni huokoa muda kwa sababu sina gas wala pesa za kununua jiko (Using firewood saves time. I don't have gas and money enough to buy a jiko)."
Peris Wambui says she uses the jiko because it is cheap.
"Lakini saa zingine moshi yaumiza macho (But the smoke from the jiko sometimes hurts my eyes)."
Poverty is also what has led to an increase in illegal electricity connections in the Coastal city.
Mombasa has a population of more than 900,000 and a majority of the people in the slums are on connections that Kenya Power has not authorised.
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An electricity pole at Tudor Moroto slum in Mombasa, August 27, 2017. /ELKANA JACOB
"We have not had electricity because of too many disconnections," Kitsao says, adding this forces them to turn to the illegal connections.
According to HuruMap, Mombasa's rate of electricity use for lighting is 59 per cent, more than double the national rate of 22.69 per cent.
Electricity is followed by tin lamps and lanterns.
OPENS SEWERS ANOTHER DANGER
Sewer lines lie open outside many homes in Tudor Moroto and just like in the case of dirty air, residents seem accustomed to this.
They play, hang their clothes to dry and air mattresses while hopping over the open lines.
WHO reported that a quarter of all global deaths of children under five are due to unhealthy or polluted environments, including dirty water and air.
A public toilet at Tudor Moroto slum in Mombasa, August 27, 2017. /ELKANA JACOB
The risks include diarrhoea, malaria and pneumonia, conditions which kill 1.7 million children a year.
HuruMap shows 27 per cent of the Mombasa population use sewers or septic tanks as their main mode of human waste disposal.
INTERVENTIONS TO REDUCE INDOOR AIR POLLUTION
According to WHO, Interventions can be classified according to the level at which they are effective: a) interventions on the source of pollution, b) interventions to the living environment, and c) interventions to user behaviour.
The organisation notes people can use alternative fuels for their cooking.
"The largest reductions in indoor air pollution can be achieved by switching from solid fuels (biomass, coal) to cleaner and more efficient fuels and energy technologies."
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The alternatives include liquid petroleum gas, biogas, producer gas, electricity, solar power and improved stoves
Improved stoves come in handy in poor, rural areas where it is difficult to find alternative fuels and biomass is the most practical fuel.
Changes in design and installation would help, alongside maintenance, significantly reducing the amount of smoke emitted and shortening the cooking period.
Illustration by Wandia Karige